Unfortunately I am not able to fully appreciate the beauty of the day because most of the time I am gripped by fear. My emotional state is directly proportional to the rate of speed at which Claudio is hurtling this car and its cargo across the desert. The landscape blurs past my window as our vehicle exceeds 100 mph. Granted, this is a remote highway in the northeastern state of Paraiba, which may explain why we have yet to see any law enforcement on the road (this may actually be a good thing because the cops in Brazil are notoriously corrupt), but nonetheless, I am gripped. With sheer. Red. Primordial. Fear. From my spot in the backseat behind Claudio’s head, I frantically clutch the armrest, unconsciously attempting to slow the vehicle with my bare hands. Seated beside me, my husband also white knuckles the opposite door’s armrest. And this white knuckling, if you know him, is quite a task. Alas, despite our backseat machinations Claudio’s lead foot prevails and we hurdle along, packed like sardines into a rented 4-door Nissan sedan. What have I gotten us into? queries my mind. Please let us live, whimpers my soul.We are headed towards Vale dos Dinossauros (Valley of the Dinosaurs) located in the western end of Paraiba State. As its Portuguese title suggests, this is a paleontological site featuring some of the longest, continuous dinosaur footprints in the world. In particular we are headed to a national park in the Rio do Peixe basin (less romantically known in English as Fish River) where over 395 separate dinosaur tracks have been identified in the past 30 years or so.
I first heard about Vale dos Dinossauros within days of arriving in the northeast. As soon as I learned that the dinosaur tracks had been definitively dated to between 130 - 110 million years ago, I knew I had to go see them. My next task was to locate a car and driver, since taking a bus would take too long (12 hours) and renting a cab would cost too much (US$700). Enter Claudio. A cab driver who frequently lounges under the tree outside our condo in Recife, Claudio is tall and possesses one of the richest voices I have ever heard. He is also honest and friendly. After three days of negotiation, we finally agreed on the following conditions: we would rent a car, he would drive it. We would leave early in the morning (about 5:00am) because the trip to the park was long (about 6 hours one way). Above all, none of us wanted to spend the night away from Recife: Claudio, because he wanted to get back to his wife and three children and us, because the cost for putting five people up for the night would be, like the cab expense, prohibitively high. What my husband and I neglected to negotiate was the rate of speed at which Claudio was agreeing to drive us to and from our destination. Hence the Indy 500 death-defying drive through the Brazilian outback. Would we ever see the dinosaur tracks before the fatal crash I knew was in my immediate future?
Although locals have probably known about the footprints for centuries, the first guy to formally chronicle the dinosaur tracks of Paraiba was an engineer by the name of Luciano Jacques de Moraes, who was hired by the Brazilian government in the 1920s to survey waterways during a particularly intense period of drought. Indeed, it was the misery of this drought which led, in part, to the end of the First Republic and the subsequent establishment of the first dictatorship in 1930. Politics aside, in his search for water Moraes found only dry river beds containing the petrified sediment which hosted dinosaur footprints. Since the 1920s, several specialists have examined the fossilized footprints, the study of which has come to be known as vertebrate ichnology. As a field of research, vertebrate ichnology is relatively new but is considered a "valid subdiscipline within the mainstream of geology and paleontology" (Lockley xiv). The most influential scientist to have studied the Rio do Peixe (pronounced he-o do pea-sh) basin is Guiseppe Leonardi, who has led a whopping 80 expeditions over the course of 15 years (1974-1989).Throughout the 20th century, and because vertebrate ichnology was such a new field of research, many different scholars gave the tracks different names. This, however, led to some confusion within the vertebrate ichnologist community. Now it is pretty much agreed that "the only adequate and valid description of any of [the] track types is that published by Guiseppe Leonardi" (Lockley 146), who wrote a seminal work entitled Annotated Atlas of South American Tetrapod Footprints about his work in the region.
The dinosaur tracks Leonardi researched in the outback of Paraiba State originated during the Lower Cretaceous, a period in geologic time dating from 144 – 65 million years ago. Known by locals in the region as “ox tracks”, the footprints were created by ornithischian and saurischian dinosaurs. These categories are determined by the hip structure of the creatures. Ornithischians were mild mannered plant eaters who had blunt teeth and a backward pointing pelvis. The name ornithischian means “bird hipped” as the prefix ornith suggests. They were also more numerous than the predatory saurischians (Norman 93). Saurischians, also known as “reptile hipped” dinosaurs, had a forward pointing pelvis and long second fingers. Saurischians often were long necked and possessed large, sharp teeth. This latter characteristic may be explained by the saurischian penchant to eat meat. In short, many (but not all) of the saurischian dinosaurs were carnivores. Known by scientists as therapods, these carnivorous saurischians were agile and had large eyes to spot their prey. They also possessed grasping claws and their sharp teeth were used to literally slice their prey in pieces. Therapods, according to scientific consensus, are the ancestors of modern day birds (Norman 11). As suggested previously, the re was another type of saurischian dinosaur known as the sauropod. These creatures had small brains and, as herbivores, had large guts for digesting leaves and grasses. Sauropods are thought to have been the largest dinosaurs on earth.
Most scientists agree that dinosaurs began to inhabit the earth around 225 million years ago (Norman 14). At the time the continent we now know as South America was actually connected to Africa, forming a huge landmass known as Gondwana. Then, sometime around 120 million years ago, South America began to separate from Africa. The split began at the southernmost portion of the landmass; gradually the splitting moved north to create the body of water we now call the Atlantic Ocean. The last portion to remain connected was in the northernmost region of Brazil in what is now Paraiba State and the Ghana region of Africa. The splitting action was inexorable, however, and ultimately the two continents did separate.
The area in modern day Brazil where the split of Gondwana occurred consisted of hundreds of shallow lakes in a hot “intertropical” climate (Leonardi in Gillette 170). Because of the heat and the water, the region was very humid. Dinosaurs traversed this rich and diverse landscape in interesting patterns. Most of the carnivorous therapods traveled alone. The herbivorous sauropods, however, tended to be “gregarious” and moved in “herds” (Leonardi in Gillette 165 and 167). Traveling in large groups probably helped their survival against the solitary, and faster, therapods. The preservation of both sauropod and therapod footprints occurred because “most tracks were made and preserved on moist substrates” (Lockley 148). In other words, the dinosaurs just stomped through the shallow lakes as though they were mud puddles. And because of the heat and the type of soil material (coarse sandstone), the footprints were petrified in situ for the next 130 million years. If only this journey to view the tracks could be as static as the tracks themselves, I thought to myself as Claudio’s lead foot stomped on the gas pedal that endlessly propelled us down the open road.
Brazil, according to the website www.car-accidents.com, ranks third in the world for car crashes. According to the US State Department, roads in Brazil are “widely recognized as the most dangerous in the world.” The high rate of motor vehicle accidents in Brazil is likely related to three factors: high rates of speed, severe tail-gating and an interpersonal communication style which requires Brazilians to talk with their hands and keep their eyes – not on the road – but on the faces of their communication partners. So, picture this: you are in the passenger seat. Your Brazilian companion is driving at 100 mph. Frequently his hands are not on the steering wheel, nor are his eyes on the road. Rather his hands are waving dramatics in the air and his eyes are locked on your face. Cultural differences being what they are, he does not realize that what he sees in your face is sheer terror. He thinks you are happy and this makes him happy. His happiness also makes him go faster. If he happens to see a vehicle up ahead, he speeds up until his front bumper is an inch from the rear bumper of the car in front. This is to ensure that he will not miss an opportunity to pass the car in the event that there is no on coming traffic. Of course, there is always on coming traffic and so the tail-gating persists for minutes that seem like hours. You see, in Brazil, there is no fanciful notion such as we have in the United States about “getting there being half the fun.” No sir. In the minds of the Brazilian locals, getting there in this country is a task best gotten over with as quickly as possible. In other words, everyone drives fast. Really, really fast.
After about three hours of Indy 500-style racing, my husband and I hijack Claudio. Yes, we do. We clamor, beg and cajole him so much that he finally stops on the side of the road and switches places with David. Yes, you read that correctly; we make the taxi driver sit in the passenger seat while my husband drives the rest of the way to Vale dos Dinossauros. As a result, we make it to our destination alive. This does not, however, end the adventure.
Once inside the park we pull up to a modest interpretive center where Chico Francisco Antones Fultado greets us. As an inheritance from the Portuguese, most Brazilians have more names than Americans have children. Chico is no exception. An affable volunteer who had worked with Leonardi on many of the latter’s scientific expeditions, Chico offers to serve as our guide for the day. The weather outside is hot and humid and as soon as we leave the interpretive center and head down the trail toward the Passagem das Pedras (Passage of Rocks) we are accosted by swarms of mosquitoes. Despite the blood sucking hoards we continue on the path until we reach a dry riverbed. Apparently as a result of Leonardi’s research, in the 1990s the Brazilian government chose to support the development of infrastructure at the site.
This includes the interpretive center we have just left as well as the river diversion project and some elevated walkways which serve as viewing platforms above the riverbed. Although modest, this type of government support for scientific projects in the outback is rare. Usually it only comes during an election cycle or when the international community turns its gaze on the nation’s leaders. Regardless of the politics behind such development, what lies in front of us is remarkable. Roughly 120 million years ago – right about the same time that Gondwana was separating into two different continents -- therapods and sauropods walked down this riverbed. And their footprints were lithicated into the rock as some of the best preserved dinosaur tracks in the world. In particular, one set of tracks stands out. They are continuous and from the looks of things, appear to be the happy gait of the same animal. Chico informs us that this track is 164 feet long and was produced by the footsteps of a herbivorous sauropod.
Chico makes my day when he offers to let me climb down off the viewing platform to walk on the petrified riverbed. I am honored and ecstatic as David takes our photo.
Later, as we walk back towards the interpretive center, Chico suggests that we take a drive to another near by location where local Indians (Brazilians don’t refer to them as indigenous or Native American) made markings adjacent to a series of therapod tracks. Not that any of us are fully recovered from Claudio’s death-defying drive to Vale dos Dinossauros but the chance to see a conversation between dinosaurs and Indians is just too good to pass up. We make our way back to the car only to find Claudio sleeping under the shade of a tree. Since my hostility toward him is still largely unresolved, waking him is sweet revenge. As Claudio rustles to wakefulness, we take shots of water from the ice chest in the car’s trunk. Once hydrated and with Chico now riding shotgun while the rest of us are stuffed into the backseat, we leave the park.According to Dr. Anthony Martin, Senior Lecturer in the Department of Environmental Studies at Emory University, “ichnology . . .began in prehistory when hunter-gatherer societies used the signs of animals for acquiring their prey” (Martin 1). This interaction between humans and the tracks left millions of years ago by dinosaurs is “probably one of the first applied sciences in human history, born out of necessity for survival”; the scientific term for the interaction between dinosaur tracks and early humans is often referred to as neoichnology (Martin 1). Neo means “new” although in this case it might be more useful to think of it as meaning “early”. As the etymology of the term suggests, it can be explained as the early study of dinosaur traces by the indigenous people of the region. While most people in the 21st century pursue the study of dinosaur tracks for what they tell us about the history and behaviors of dinosaurs, it is likely that the people who encountered these tracks in the pre-contact era would use them as signs or omens for hunting or pro-creation.The tracks might have suggested a good hunt or healthy offspring. On the other hand, encountering dinosaur traces might have portended sickness or famine. Whatever the real or imagined message, the “instances of rock art related to known trackways suggest that non-writing cultures devoted considerable time and speculation to the meaning of foot impressions on stone” (Mayor 158). Although it may be challenging for us to objectively interpret what the significance of dinosaur track sightings meant to early indigenous groups, it is clear that the footprints meant something to the people wh o inhabited the region. Otherwise, they would not have engraved markings adjacent to the tracks. Whether the dinosaur traces were attributed as belonging to “gods, demons, heroes, primitive men, familiar game and fowl, [or] bizarre mythological animals and birds” (Mayor 161) by the earliest human inhabitants may never be known. What we do know is that Indians “talked” to the dinosaurs by carving petroglyphs adjacent to the lithicated footprints. And I am on a mission to see some rock carvings with my own eyes.
But first I have to survive the passage. Although we had hijacked the car on the final leg of the journey to the park, we thought surely the moderating influence of our guide Chico would slow Claudio down as we headed toward our next location. To be fair, Claudio did slow down. But really this is only because he had to. The petroglyph site is down a dirt track which is better suited for a 4 wheel drive vehicle than the 4 door sedan we find ourselves in. The bottom scrapes on sandstone rock. The muffler crunches in potholes of dried out riverbeds. The tires spin in fine desert sand. Finally we get out and walk since we realize we can get there faster on foot than by sitting passively as we subject our rented vehicle to a private demolition.Claudio, of course, elects to nap in the car as we set out in search of stone carvings made by hand rather than by the undercarriage of a car.
Most scientists agree that dinosaurs met their earthly demise some time around 65 million years ago. Indeed the time frame at the end of the Cretaceous and the beginning of the Tertiary Period (known as the K-T boundary) during which dinosaurs became extinct is often referred to as a “major punctuation in life and consequently a mass-extinction event” (Norman 160). Not only did dinosaurs disappear but flying reptiles and marine reptiles were also among those made extinct at the same time (Norman 160). Although many theories have been presented to explain the events of the K-T boundary, the most current and credible one holds that a meteorite hit earth in the Yucatan peninsular region of modern day Mexico about 65 million years creating a crater “approximately 350 feet across [which] coincided with the K-T boundary layer” (Norman 163). The explanation, known as the impact theory, asserts that the impact of the meteorite created “dust and clouds [that] would have plunged the world into a freezing blackout” along with massive quantities of “sulphur dioxide and water in the atmosphere [which] would have combined to produce sulphuric acid aerosols, and these would have severely reduced the amount of sunlight reaching the Earth’s surface for between 5 and 10 years. These aerosols would have had the combined effects of cooling the Earth to near freezing and drenching the surface in acid rain” (Norman 163). Clearly this type of event (or series of events, as some recent analysis is beginning to show) would have altered the climate, the geography and the environment in dramatic ways. In short, dinosaurs were merely the collateral damage of a devastating event in earth’s history. Hence the existence of these mysterious creatures lasted from about 225 – 65 million years ago. And then they were gone, leaving behind only bones and footprints in desert regions such as the one in which I find myself now. Those traces, however, serve as ticklers for the human imagination, whether for ichnologists of the 21st century or indigenous men and women of the Pleistocene.
Ironically much less is agreed upon about the beginning point for human inhabitants in Brazil than is agreed upon about dinosaurs. Indeed the fields of archaeology and anthropology are uncovering new evidence about the peopling of the Americas at a rapid pace. Although there are many unknowns, what most scientists and social scientists are beginning to understand is that human history in South America is much longer than previously believed. The traditional theory about migration from Asia during the last Ice Age (10,000 years ago) is being tossed on the outdated-ideas-about-human-history rubbish heap. Whether cave paintings in the Amazon with carbon 14 dates to 12,000 years ago or sophisticated and complex urban cities in modern day Peru (at Caral Supe) which date to 5,000 years ago, the scientific record is becoming clear. What we used to think about human habitation in South America is no longer sustained by the facts. As a result, status quo notions about the way in which people arrived in South America, how they lived, and indeed, their population numbers are being evaluated and revised with a freshness and vigor not seen before.
All of this swims through my mind as we hike toward the petroglyphs and dinosaur tracks. After leaving Claudio in the car, we head west into the scrub and cactus. The sun is hot, the terrain uneven. Chico leads us at a pretty fast pace when suddenly he stops short at a small rock plateau. He points to the dinosaur tracks – carnivorous theropod tracks dating to about 165 million years ago – and then to the small circular petroglyphs next to them. Here is the conversation I have been looking for. I am stunned by the simplicity of the moment and humbled by the profundity of the markings. Gently with my index finger, I trace the outline of the rock carving. This mark was made by another human nearly 3,000 years ago. I am transported to another time. In my mind’s eye, I can see hunters coming across these dinosaur tracks while searching for game.The men pause, point, discuss and ponder in amazement. The sight of the footprints (which look remarkably like a bird’s) cause the men to think good bird hunting will be forthcoming. One of the men makes a mark below the track as thanksgiving for the sign. Immediately another scenario rattles through my imagination. This rock plateau was once a riverbed. Rather than the men first discovering the tracks, perhaps it was the women who first spotted the dinosaur footprints in the rock when they came down to the water’s edge to cook or bathe. I can almost hear their excited voices and gestures, while the children gathered behind them with big eyes. In that moment, perhaps it was the oldest woman of the clan who took a sharp stone and made this mark in the river rock. She was talking to the creature whose footprints looked like a bird’s in a time before her people knew the written word. This mark is her written word, and with it pre-historic ichnology – neoichnology – is born.
Suddenly I hear yelps from our translator Fernando. He appears to be dancing with a cactus and, although his distress is real, the scene is quite funny. My moment of time travel is lost but the impact of the image remains like light in my eye when the camera’s flashbulb goes off. I’m blinded by the image that’s been imprinted in my imagination.
Soon, however, the relentless sun drives us to seek shade and ultimately retrace our steps to the car. We interrupt Claudio from his second nap of the day, squeeze into the Nissan and then bump and grind our way down the dirt road on our return trip to the park. After purchasing a t-shirt at the interpretive center gift shop and saying our good-byes, Chico slips me a folded up piece of paper. Inside I find a poem written in Portuguese by Chico’s colleague, Robson Marone. In translation it reads: Your Friends from the Valley
California, California
It’s a good land, yeah my Lord.
Land of authentic women
And of enterprising men;
The one who doesn’t know California
Might die of love!
Thank you for having come
To this place so beautiful
Smiling to marvel at us;
Nice tourists are difficult to find.
The “Dinosaur Valley” thanks you,
And Robson Marone will pray,
Asking of God in Heaven,
That the omnipotent singer
Come to bless you!
Obscure poets are abundant in the sertao, and Robson’s work is no exception. Despite that, we appreciate the sentiment of good will as we look ahead to the long drive back to Recife. After some negotiation, Claudio is convinced into allowing David to drive on the return leg. Confident that the adventure is nearly over, I settle into the back seat for the six hour return trip. If only my confidence had a foundation! Some time after sunset Claudio, who had – no surprise here – been sleeping in the front seat, wakes up agitated. David missed a turnoff that Claudio had wanted to take. Apparently this highway has a police check point up ahead and the turnoff that we missed would have by-passed the check point. In addition, because David does not have an international driver’s license, he cannot be driving when we go through the checkpoint. The last thing we want is to have David thrown in a Brazilian jail for driving without a license. So he pulls over and Claudio resumes driving.
This turns out to be a really good plan, because almost immediately after Claudio takes the wheel we arrive at the checkpoint. In the darkness and flashing lights of passing cars, I spot three uniformed officers. They are standing on the left side of the road directing vehicles in a seemingly random fashion through the cones distributed across the lanes. One car is waved through while another is stopped for questioning. It’s a busy place and the darkness and flashing lights set a tone of foreboding amidst the swirl of vehicles. I cannot see any pattern except it appears that every third car or so gets stopped. And sure enough: the officer directing us motions for Claudio to pull over. A dread forms in my belly. In the darkness I see only a shadow of the man’s face as he leans into the window on the driver’s side. The headlights from a passing car glimmer in the night and I catch a glimpse of the gun at his waist. Words are exchanged. Claudio hands the officer his driver’s license. More words are exchanged. Claudio opens the car door and gets out. Together they walk to the back of the car. Claudio opens the trunk where our ice chest has faithfully served us refreshments all day. Inside the car we hold our breath.
Police in Brazil are well known for their corruption and penchant for bribery. The problem is systemic and has myriad elements. Perhaps on the top of the list is the fact that officers are paid small salaries, about the equivalent of $US 300.00 per month. In order to supplement their income, cops here regularly set up check points such as this one. Drivers are “asked” to pay a modest fee to be released without having to go to jail. The wheels of justice are greased on the streets of Brazil. The Brazilian public goes along with the program since they know that the judges higher up the legal chain will simply require a more costly lubrication fee. According to a former police chief, Hélio Luz, who was interviewed in a May 2007 edition of Zero Hora “The problem is police corruption. There is this impression that crime is high in Brazil. It’s not. Police corruption is high. Criminality flows from the corruption of the police. When the police stop being corrupt, crime goes down. The traffic, in reality, is a partner of the Brazilian police.”
This leads to another important aspect to the problem: government structure. Police are hired, trained and paid through state government. The federal government has no authority over each state’s police force. Therefore even though the federal government may initiate investigations or enact higher penalties against police who are found guilty of corruption, accountability and follow through is sorely lacking. According to Hubert Williams, “police corruption arises from deficiencies in the various dimensions of accountability. Police corruption reflects a lack of institutional accountability, in which police supervisors and managers sanction their officers’ conduct or stoop to it themselves. It reflects a lack of judicial accountability, in which courts turn a blind eye to police corruption or fail to mete out fitting punishment for misbehavior. It reflects vague or weak laws that put inadequate restrictions on police authority. And it reflects government’s failure to censure police misconduct” (7). Even though the Lula government is doling out the equivalent of $US 4 billion dollars between 2008-2012 in a program known as the National Public Security and Citizenship Programme, the Worldwide Corruption Perceptions ranking of countries published by Transparency International claims that corruption in Brazil continues to be a serious problem (http://www.transparency.org/policy_research/surveys_indices/cpi). Brazil, along with Morocco, Saudi Arabia and Thailand, ranks 80th in the world in their 2008 survey.
From the backseat of the car, I hear the trunk close. Claudio returns to the driver’s seat without a word. He cautiously pulls the vehicle away from the officers and their cones. As we gain speed on the highway once again, I ask him what happened. Claudio explains that the officer “asked” him for $10 reais, the equivalent of $5.00US. Suddenly it hits me: the reason why we never saw any police cars on the road when we were speeding at death-defying rates earlier in the day is because the cops aren’t interested in upholding the law. Rather, they are breaking the law through bribery and extortion. In order to enforce the traffic laws, the police would have to abide by the law in their own practices. This is power in its ugliest form, and I had just witnessed it at close range.
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